By Angela Sadang  |  January 27, 2017  |  

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Once the initial transfer pricingTransfer pricing is a fundamental concept in international taxation that defines the pricing methods and rules applied to transactions between related entities within a multinational enterprise (MNE). In the context of tax regulations, it governs how prices for goods, services, or intangibles (such as intellectual property) are set when these items are exchanged between different branches, subsidiaries, or affiliates of... interviews (i.e. functional analysisFunctional analysis is the cornerstone of transfer pricing and international tax compliance, ensuring that intercompany transactions adhere to the arm’s length principle. It evaluates the roles, contributions, and risk profiles of entities within a multinational enterprise (MNE) to determine how profits and costs should be allocated. This process ensures that related-party transactions reflect the pricing that independent enterprises would establish... interviews) have been conducted and the necessary data has been gathered, it is then time to describe the client’s business model. This means distinguishing the functions performed, the assets employed, and the risks assumed by the entities involved in intercompany transactionsIntra-Group Transactions are interactions between entities within the same multinational enterprise (MNE). Such transactions form the backbone of related-party dealings and are essential in managing global operations and aligning business objectives across jurisdictions. Understanding intra-group transactions is critical in international tax and transfer pricing, as they directly impact a company's tax obligations, profitability, and compliance standing. Tax professionals, accountants, lawyers,... so that it conforms to one of the several business models defined by the tax authorities.  Some of the common business models used by sales and distribution organizations today are:

1. Commission Agent
2. Limited Risk Distributor
3. Full Fledged Distributor (Marketer/Distributor)

An entity’s profitability is typically related to the functions, risks, and intangible assetsIntangible Assets are non-physical assets that have value due to the rights or advantages they confer on a business. Unlike tangible assets like machinery or buildings, intangible assets cannot be seen or touched but often hold significant worth. Common examples include intellectual property (IP) such as patents, trademarks, copyrights, goodwill, and brand recognition. Intangible assets are crucial for driving long-term... associated with its activities. Therefore, it is important to define the business model selected, as it will drive the type and amount of compensation that can be determined under arm’s length principles and will define which country will enjoy the largest portion of the profits.  The key characteristics of these three popular business models are as follows.

Commission Agent (CA)

In general, a CA receives a commission on the sale of products to customers contacted on behalf of the manufacturer or distributor. 

A commission agent generally operates as a sales representative, who does not purchase products for resale, but receives a commission on the sale of products to customers.  The commission agent contacts customers on behalf of a manufacturing or distribution entity.  A commission agent is responsible for typical sales functions, such as: (i) identifying potential customers; (ii) calling on active and potential customers; (iii) introducing new products; (iv) taking customer orders; (v) maintaining customer relations; and (vi) providing limited technical assistance.  The commission agent undertakes fewer operational functions than a distributor/marketer and limited-scope distributor, and is typically not involved in any strategic or marketing activities.

Functions performed by the CA include:

• Canvassing potential clients
• Introducing new products and taking customer orders
• Maintaining customer relations (but providing only limited technical assistance)

Terms and contracts are agreed to outside of the local country with little input from the CA. 

Also, the CA does not take title to goods, and usually, CA incurs no market risks, or risks related to either marketing or technology intangibles. 

Local revenue is usually not recorded on the books of the CA, only sales expenses thus, revenue is limited to the sales commission. 

In such an arrangement, the Principal located outside the country should be careful to avoid being characterized as “doing business” (having a permanent establishment [PE]) in the US, although it is possible that the Principal may have “Nexus” for state and local purposes, and have the obligation to collect sales tax in one or multiple jurisdictions ―even where no PE exists.

For a CA, the commission received is usually determined based on a cost plus algorithm and provides a very modest return due, to the fact that few functions are performed and little risk is incurred.

Limited Risk Distributor (LRD)

In general, an LRD is a buy/sell organization that performs all sales and distribution functions and has limited risk profile.

The limited-scope distributor undertakes many of the same activities as a marketer/distributor; however, the primary distinction between the two entities is the degree of involvement in strategic marketing decisions.  In many industries, a limited-scope distributor has little or no strategic marketing responsibility, but may undertake the day-to-day risks delegated by the manufacturer whose products the limited-scope distributor purchases and resells.  Because the distributor does not undertake responsibility for these functions, it also avoids the associated risks, including some market risk, and typically does not develop the associated marketing intangibles.

Local revenue is recorded on the books of the LRD as well as the cost of goods sold.  In some cases the intellectual property (IP) is bundled in the product price paid to the Principal, who is the IP owner.  In other cases, especially for a more mature company, there is a separate service fee for the use of intangibles.  This fee or royalty is charged in addition to the purchase price of the product/offering.

For an LRD, the resale price method or the comparable profits method (CPM) can be utilized to determine the amount of the payment to be received.  Various algorithms can be used to determine a targeted distribution return, such as a Return on Sales (ROS) or the Berry Ratio (i.e. the ratio of gross profits to operating expenses).

Full Fledged Distributor (FFD)

In general, a FFD undertakes all of the sales and distribution functions as well as the typical risk incurred in performing this function.  It buys, holds and sells product/offerings, as appropriate.

Additionally, the FFD (marketer/distributor) holds some strategic and operational marketing responsibility.  These marketing functions include:  (i) conducting market research, such as building sales forecasts and consumer profiles; (ii) developing advertising materials or campaigns or hiring independent advertising professionals; and (iii) developing strategic marketing plans.  Because the FFD undertakes both operational and entrepreneurial functions relating to the marketing, distribution, and sales activities, the marketer/distributor bears the risks associated with these activities, such as credit, inventory shrinkage, and market risk.  It also develops the associated marketing intangibles, including (i) customer relationships, (ii) recognition of a trademark/trade name, (iii) a third-party dealer network, and/or (iv) expertise in either technical or customer assistance.

As with the LRD, local revenue is recorded on the books of the FFD and in addition to the purchase price of the goods/offering, there is a separate charge/royalty for the Principal’s IP.

For an FFD, the payment received for its services is usually determined based on CPM method.

Once the business model:  Commission Agent, Limited Risk Distributor, or Full Fledged Distributor, for transfer pricingTransfer pricing is a fundamental concept in international taxation that defines the pricing methods and rules applied to transactions between related entities within a multinational enterprise (MNE). In the context of tax regulations, it governs how prices for goods, services, or intangibles (such as intellectual property) are set when these items are exchanged between different branches, subsidiaries, or affiliates of... has been defined, the next step is to determine the “Best Method” to achieve an arm’s length transfer priceTransfer pricing is a fundamental concept in international taxation that defines the pricing methods and rules applied to transactions between related entities within a multinational enterprise (MNE). In the context of tax regulations, it governs how prices for goods, services, or intangibles (such as intellectual property) are set when these items are exchanged between different branches, subsidiaries, or affiliates of....  At this point, the payment to be made to related parties must be comparable to the remuneration realized by unrelated parties under comparable circumstances. 

For this exercise, economists and global databases are utilized to identify a range of potential prices, which related parties would use to create cross charges to be included in the local books and records of the each of the related parties.  It is not unusual for much of the income, in an entity’s tax returnA Tax Return is a formal statement filed by an individual or entity that details income, expenses, and other pertinent tax information to a tax authority. Its primary purpose is to assess tax liability, determine refunds owed, or highlight outstanding taxes due. Tax returns may include information about earnings, capital gains, allowable deductions, and credits, depending on the tax regulations..., to be generated by the transfer pricingTransfer pricing is a fundamental concept in international taxation that defines the pricing methods and rules applied to transactions between related entities within a multinational enterprise (MNE). In the context of tax regulations, it governs how prices for goods, services, or intangibles (such as intellectual property) are set when these items are exchanged between different branches, subsidiaries, or affiliates of... exercise.

After the suitable prices have been determined, it is necessary to establish intercompany legal documents to memorialize the transfer pricingTransfer pricing is a fundamental concept in international taxation that defines the pricing methods and rules applied to transactions between related entities within a multinational enterprise (MNE). In the context of tax regulations, it governs how prices for goods, services, or intangibles (such as intellectual property) are set when these items are exchanged between different branches, subsidiaries, or affiliates of... policy and method.  To avoid future tax exposure or tax disagreements with governments, companies need to align their business model and business practices with their legal agreements and produce the documentation required by the relevant taxing authorities.